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Introduction to guidance and counselling

INTRODUCTION

What is counselling?

Counselling derived from the word ‘counsel’. However in recent years, the word acquired its own specific meaning or technical term to describe a therapeutic interaction between two people or more.

All of us, maybe at some point of our time, find ourselves acting as counsellor. Most of us do not have a true grasp on what are the concepts of counselling or how to play the role as a professional counsellor.

Professional counsellors are highly trained and able to use different kinds of counselling theories and approaches to help their clients. It is a big different to a person who uses some counselling skills as a role for example a colleague or a friend.

Counselling is sometimes a complex and confusing term. It carries different meanings for different people. In the Concise Oxford Dictionary, there are two definitions of counselling:

1)      “to give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.”

2)      “the process of assisting and guiding clients especially by a trained person on a professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social or psychological problems and difficulties”

From the two meanings stated above, it appears to be quite conflicting, thus adding to potential confusion.

So, to define it clearly, counselling is :

§  A process when a counsellor and a client make time in order to help review and explore the client, emotional or stressful feelings.

§  It is an act of helping the client to view things from a different point of view and clearly. As a result, clients will be able to focus on their own feelings.

§  To develop a relationship through trust. The most important thing to counselling is confidentiality. However it is by law that a counsellor needs to disclose information if they believe that there is a risk to life.

What counselling is not :

§  Being judgemental

§  Giving advice

§  Sorting out problems for the client

§  Emotionally involve with the client

§  Looking at clients problem from your own point of view.

OBJECTIVES OF COUNSELLING

The main objective of counselling is to help the client to recognise and clarify their problem. These problems may vary and also could be many. These people come from different types of background and educations. It may appear superficial but it may be deeper and have implications.

As well as trying to solve the presenting problem, the client will may need to come to terms with the situation in which the client finds or to want to seek a better adjustment. This is much more difficult to face, because for most people they secretly hope for some magic to make the difficulty go away and there is nothing magic about counselling. If the aim is adjustable then it could be a long term process for both the counsellor and the client unable to see any immediate results. One of the points which the counsellor must make clear at the beginning is that he/she is unable to change the practicalities of the situation.

Another main objective is to be able to help the client to bring out voluntary changes for and by themselves. And when undergoing the counselling experience, they are lead to try to go deeper inside them. This will enable the client to retain or gain self-dependence. The factor which is common to all forms of counselling is that it takes place within a relationship and interaction between counsellor and client which is the most important component.

COUNSELLING GOALS

“ ..in behavioural terms, 3 categories of behavioural can be identified, namely altering maladaptive behaviour, learning the decision – making process and preventing problems..”

(Krumboltz, 1966)

Goals of counselling are described as immediate, mediate or process goals and long range. Goal statements are important and a must, because it provides direction and purpose of the counselling session. A counsellor’s goal is to understand his client’s feelings, motivations and behaviour. There are several goals with different functions.

§  Immediate goals – it is the process of self-exploration and to motivate the client to go through the counselling process until the mediate or process goals are achieved, and client needs to understand himself, vis-à-vis his environmental constraints and personal resource.

§  Process goal is what the client will go through to realize the ultimate goal of self – realization, self – actualization and self – understanding.

§  Long term goals are to make or turn the client into a ‘fully functioning person’

There are also several major goals that I would like to achieve with Anthony :

1)      Achievement of positive mental health.

·         If he could reach a positive mental health, he could adjust and response positively towards other people or any situation.

2)      Resolution of problems.

·         To resolve Anthony’s problem that were brought to my attention. This is important as an outcome of the former goal to imply positive mental health.

3)      Improving personal effectiveness

·         This is for Anthony to preserve a good mental health and securing desirable behaviour changes and personal development

4)      To help change

·         To maximize his individual freedom to choose and act within the conditions wanted by the environment and society

5)      Decision making

·         To enable him to make good decisions. This is to foster personal growth. I will need to help him clarify his personal goals

6)      Behaviour modification

·         To remove Anthony’s undesirable behaviour and to stress on the development of his potential within himself.

Research on the situation given

It is essential that before each counselling session, the counsellor must make sure that the client is comfortable. The reason being is that, the client will be able to express himself and not shy away.

Because Anthony does not understand why he had to go for counselling, I will need to explain to him and make him comfortable.

Therefore, before a counselling session starts, I would do a little research on the client. The reason is:

1)       To get to know the client and to make him feel comfortable so that he could freely express himself.

2)      To understand what are the factors that made him behave this way.

3)      To learn what other effects there is towards himself and also his behaviour.

4)      To share with the client ways that would help to express his feelings and emotion during the session.

This mini research is important for me to get a clearer picture on what the client is going through. It could also enlighten the parents, siblings and people around the client on how to understand the client better. So, with that knowledge, they could also help to correct and improvise the client’s problematic behaviour. The goal is also for Anthony to be honest and to make changes in his life, for him to understand and know that this behaviour is wrong and could have dire consequences if he continues acting like this. The aim is for him to want to change on his own, for himself and his future.

I would then prepare a set of questions that I would want to ask the client during our session.

1)      Introduction questions

§  Questions pertaining to his full name, age, date of birth, hobbies and other questions that will help me get to know a little bit on his background.

2)      Building a relationship

§  Question that I would put to him in order for me to gain his trust in me so that he would not shy away and feel reluctant and or uncomfortable. For example, “how are you today?”, have you had your lunch?”, “I heard that you like to play video games, what kind of video games?”.

At the same time, observations are done towards the client. On how he react to each questions, or how he is reacting. Nervous?, oblivious?, confused?, afraid? Or anxious?.

The next step would be is to start an exploration. This step is to understand the problem of the client’s behaviour through his perspective, so that we could apply the appropriate theories in order to help the client.

What are counselling theories?

Counsellors use counselling theories as treatment plan in treating their clients. There are a lot of counselling theories that they can refer too. Some of them are Gestalt, Behavioural, Jungian, Family System, Constructivist, cognitive and many more.

During a session, counsellors would apply several theories to help the client because there is no one size fits all theory or strategies that could be applied to all circumstances.

After the assessment that I had made earlier with Anthony, I have some thoughts that perhaps Anthony is having trouble with coping with his parent’s divorce. He wants the proper attention from his parents, which is why he is behaving like the way he is now. I have come up with several theories in order to help him overcome his problems.

Theories that I would apply

Individual psychology (Alfred Adler)

1)      The main reason of a personality development is not the unconscious behaviour but their conscious behaviour.  Therefore, the Alderian theory emphasizes on personal responsibility on how a person will choose to adjust to any situation or a life event and how they interpret them.

2)      Adler also view that we try hard to be successful and along the way, we overcome some areas that makes us inferior. He refer this phase as our personal growth towards our goal for perfection. So for people who did not succeed in overcoming their feelings of inferiority will then develop an inferiority complex.

3)      In this Adlerian theory, a person might choose the kind of behaviour as a result of their lack of interest in social or personal growth. A person when are discouraged when they attempt of making good behaviour had failed to get the needed results leads to misbehaviours. The best antidote is to encourage their good behaviour.

4)      Early education starts at home, it is the basic socialization for a child. A child interpretation of things happening in their life is determined by their interaction with their family members. Through this interaction, children are taught on how to accept and interpret events through certain evaluations of themselves and their surrounding environment. These perceptions are called fictions. Basic mistakes could be made when it is based on fictions. As for Anthony’s case, those mistakes are perhaps :

i)                    Minimization or denial of one’s worth results in the individual believing that they cannot be successful in life.

ii)                  Life took over courage and therefore he is willing to take risks without knowing the outcome.

Intervention strategies

Strategies that I would take via the Adlerian theory is :

§   To establish rapport

-       To explore his conscious thoughts, logic and beliefs on what sort of his behaviours that is not within his best and social interests.

-       helping him to gain insight and for him to define his lifestyle

§        Encouragement

-       Supporting him by telling him that I believe that he has the ability to be responsible and change his behaviour. Therapy is cognitive and also emphasizing on the faulty logic to encourage him to take responsibility to change

-       To promote a relationship with Anthony as an equal one, with us sharing impressions, insights, opinions and feelings to promote therapeutic relationship.

§   Confrontation

-       Challenging his behaviour and private logic.

§        Task setting

-       Ask him to behave as if he is who he wanted to be and provides him with ‘homework’ outside of the session

-       Help him set up short term goals that will head to long term goals.

§   Asking the ‘Questions’, such as :

-       “How would your life would be if you are doing well?” or

-       “Don’t you want to be successful?”

§        ‘Spitting in his soup’

-       To point out to him why he is actually behaving this way. And should after that he continues with his current behaviour, but he cannot do so, because he is already made aware of his motivation for engaging in that behaviour.

Goals to achieve through this theory

§   To focus on helping Anthony to develop a healthy lifestyle and social interest.

§   To assist him through 4 goals of the therapeutic process by :

-       Establishing the therapeutic relationship

-       Examining his lifestyle

-       To develop his insights

-       To change his behaviour

Person centered (Carl Rogers)

This theory views human basically as good. Carl Rogers believed that if given the proper treatment of empathy, acceptance and warmth, people would move to change.

Intervention strategies

§   To set up an environment where Anthony could explore any aspect of himself safely.

§   To facilitate this exploration with empathy, positive regard and warmth.

§   By using Q-Sort to assess.

-          100 different self-descriptions are written on a card.

-          Ask Anthony to sort them into 9 piles from a scale of ‘most like me’ to ‘least like me’.

-          The stacks are then recorded.

-          Cards are re – sort again by Anthony into how he would like it to be like.

-          This Q-Sort will give the indications of the incongruence between his perceived real self and ideal self. 

§  To help him through his real reflections of feelings by keeping him focused on the clarifications of feelings and information. To use open-ended questions to help him gain insight into experiences and do necessary changes in life.

Goals to achieve through this theory

To facilitate Anthony to :

• Realistic self – perception
• To have greater confidence
• To have the sense of positive warmth
• To have better social skills and adaptive behaviour
• To be fully thinking in all kinds of aspects in life

Behavioural theory (B.F. Skinner)

Skinner believes that adaptive behaviour can be learned. This theory has a here and now focus. One of the process is social modelling, whereby client can learn new behaviour by watching other people rather than having them to engage in that behaviour and experience consequences.

Intervention strategies

• To not just maintain my role as a counsellor but can vary and act as a facilitator, reinforce or as a consultant
• To be active and to supervise other people that are within Anthony’s environments to ensure he achieve his goals. In this case, the divorced parents.
• To give punishment. This is to deliver stimuli to achieve elimination of unwanted behaviour as a result.
• Behaviour rehearsals – by repeating and improving his behaviour until the desired behaviour is accomplished.

Goals to achieve through this theory

To achieve Anthony’s life through better adjustments of his life and therefore achieving his personal goals professionally and or personally.

Reality therapy (William Glasser)

Glasser believes that human being is a long process and therefore along that, one’s personality will change at any time by learning on what he needs from what he sees. He also believes that humans are self – determined. Every person has a perception about themselves.

Intervention strategies

• To act like a teacher and be a model for Anthony.
• To create a warm environment of acceptance so that he culd focus on controlling his display of thoughts and actions.
• To show the reality of his behaviour, is unrealistic.
• By using confrontations for him to accept responsibilities of his act.
• By using humour to point out absurdity without being sarcastic.

Goals to achieve through this theory

• To help Anthony to become rational and psychologically strong. A strong and rational person can behave responsibly towards himself and other people.
• To determine what he wants in life.
• Develop a practical plan for Anthony to accomplish his desires and needs.
• Helping him to put his past behind and to focus on the present.
• To accept no excuses and to have him eliminate self-punishment from his life.

Conclusion

Counselling is no magical solution. Most of us tend to view it as problem resolution, to emphasize goals or as tension reduction. Counselling is generative in terms of spirit and essence. Its aim is assisting individual to develop themselves so that he will become psychologically mature and are capable of realising his potentials. Through the several theories adopted above, t might help Anthony to resolve his behaviour into a behaviour accepted by society. All of the theories above have the same motive and objective, to help Anthony or any other person with problems like Anthony to gain insight within themselves so that they will be able to maximized their potentiality and opportunities that he have, present or in the coming future. And as a result, to become self-actualized, self-sufficient and self-directed.

REFERENCES

v        Theories of counselling, viewed at http://blogs.education.unlv.edu accessed on 11^th Nov 2013.

v      Types of counselling theories, viewed at http://www.edb.utexas.edu/faculty/rochlen/TheoriesApp/index.html accessed on 11th Nov 2013.

v  How to Use Counseling Theories & Techniques for School Counseling, viewed at http://www.ehow.com/how_6858434_use-theories-techniques-school-counseling.html  accessed on 10^th Nov 2013

v   S.Narayana Rao- Counselling and Guidance,Second edition, (1997)Tata McGraw –Hill Publishing Company Limited.NewDelhi.(Pg:63-68)

v   Cognitive and behavioural therapy, viewed at http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/behavioural.html acccessed on 13th Nov 2013.

Writing in ESL

In this essay, I will explore on different writing activities and writing feedback that would suit each of the 4 categories of student interest, as recognised by Lipstein & Renninger, and how their research, could be generalized for our own ESL students.

Introduction

Even though it is every teacher’s dream, to see all of their students becoming interested writers, but it didn’t occur to us that we can teach them to ‘love’ writing. But instead we chose to see interest in writing as something that a person was born with. Although interest plays a large role in motivation and confidence, we need a clearer misunderstanding of how teachers and classroom practices can influence student’s interest for the act of writing. Rebecca L. Lipstein and K. Ann Renninger studied the perceptions of 178 students in grades 7, 8 and 9 to develop this understanding. As a result, they had offer characteristics of students in four phases of interest and describe instructional approaches to meet students wants and needs.

Why does interest matters?

John Dewey (1913) explains that students that are interested in a subject will have more confident about their work in relation to that subject. Therefore it is effortless for them.

A person’s interest is said to the most powerful tool in learning. Because, interest can influence attention, goals and levels of learning.

“Even though interest has been recognized as an important condition for learning, educators continue to wrestle with the difficulties of working with academically unmotivated students”

(Hidi & Harackiewic, 2000)

Teachers didn’t know on how their role could help the students to flourish their interest. It is because that teacher’s often have thoughts that whether the students are interested or not, that they might miss to recognize that they could contribute in developing the student’s interest. A teacher’s dream is to see their students have interests in writing and becoming a good writer. But in reality, we find only few of our students with these traits.

As for writing, having an interest definitely affects the way how the students approach writing and the results that they receive.

“Research on writing and motivation indicates that students who have an interest for writing are more likely to set affective goals, make use of helpful strategies, and seek feedback as they work with writing tasks”

(Lipstein & Renninger, 2007)

Suitable writing strategy for each category of students.

Phase one students

Phase one students are students that are in primary school. These students are more likely to describe writing as ‘boring’ and needs a lo0t of work. Usually they are confused on how do they approach the task.

What they wants

§  Phase one students wants teachers to understand how writing is something that is hard for them to do.

§  They want writing to feel easier for them. Something they would enjoy and not hard work.

What they need

Teachers play the role of facilitating what the student wants. Teachers will need to facilitate them in receiving concrete suggestions and strategies for them to write.

Writing activities that could be done

1)      Creating sentence completion

§  Provide a worksheet that has a word written on it. For example, ‘Apples, Apples.

§  Ask them to write simple sentences to describe the word

Why?

§  Students can relate the words with what they know. So the task will not be a burden to them.

§  Students could trace the beginning part of the sentence and just add one or two more sentences to describe the word.

§  Students could build their grammar

2)      Create an organized and detailed writing prompts (this involves 4 worksheets)

§  1^st worksheet

-          Give a worksheet with unfinished sentence. For example ; ‘When I grow up I want to be              .’

§  2^nd worksheet

-          This worksheet will have an instruction. For example ; Let’s say the student wants to be a scientist. The instruction would be ‘What will I do if I want to be a scientist?’

-          Ask them to fill up the box with simple words explaining on what they will do if they want to become a scientist.

§  3^rd worksheet

-          Prepare the worksheet for sentence completion. For example ; ‘When I grow up, I want to be a scientist

-          Provide 2 boxes in the worksheet and label them :

-          Box 1 – ‘First I need to do                             .’

-          Box 2 – Then, I will                            .’

-          Ask the students to fill up those 2 boxes in simple words / sentences.

§  4^th worksheet

-          Give a blank piece of worksheet, have the students to join the words that they had provided to build up sentences.

-          During this exercise, teachers will need to walk them through it and have them help each other.

Why?

§  Students will know how to organize their writing, by which comes first method

§  They will be able to make up sentences by joining them together

§  Its fun and not pressuring, they will constantly have to use their imagination to make up words to complete their writing.

Phase two students

What they want

Phase 2 students already have the basics on how to write. At this phase they like getting feedback from the teachers. They take writing is to be done in order to please the teachers and getting back compliments / feedback.

What they need

These students have this impression of that the right way to do it is the teacher’s way. They need to be taught and encouraged to have their own say in their writing.

Writing activities that could be done

1)      Creative story writing

The teacher could either give them a topic or let them choose a topic on their own. Have them construct a story. During this session, the teacher will facilitate them on how they should write their stories, giving suggestion for them to ponder on or why they had chosen that particular topic. Have them give ideas to each other, while the teacher gives comments or feedback about those ideas.

Why?

§  Promotes creative writing

§  During the session, the teachers will facilitate, they like getting feedbacks on the article that they are currently doing, from what the teacher comments on, they improvise.

§  With active interactions between teachers and students during the sessions and getting instant feedback at the same time, they will put in extra effort, effortlessly.

Phase Three students

What they want

Students in this phase loves writing and consider it as a place where they can go and be free. It is fun for them because they get to make their own rule on what they wanted to write. And because they like writing they would revise and will gladly spends more time on writing. They do not prefer feedback and peer conferencing on telling them how to write.

What they need

To encourage them to write and to channel their enthusiasm and to broaden their awareness of writing conventions and audience expectations.

Writing activities that could be done

Because of their need to express themselves through their ideas, this kind of activity would suit them. In this phase, the students already know the different types of writing that they need to use when they are given a topic to write. (narrative, persuasive or expository).

§  Find an article for them to express their ideas. For example; write an expository essay on the topic ‘Heavier punishments for traffic offenders.’

§  Have them explain reasons to support this topic. Use several examples to support that reason.

Why?

§  As they love to express themselves in writing, by providing a topic and let them write it however they want it, could encourage them more.

§  They don’t mind the extra revision that they need to do, and by doing research ti expands their ideas.

§  They could read aloud their essays and take part in a teacher – guided discussions to defend their own point of view.

Phase Four students

What they want?

In this phase, the students wants to please audiences and themselves by showing balance between their personal standards to a more widely accepted standards of good writing.

What they need

They need to continuously be challenged in order to improve and they want and do not mind receiving constructive feedback about their writing.

 Writing activities that could be done

Research writing

§  The objective is to help the students incorporate sources in their essay

§  Why we use sources?

§  They will need to do some research as a way to sort out different reasons.

§  Facilitators need to emphasize that in order to prove that the ‘thesis’ is correct, they will need to go beyond and research all ideas.

§  Let the students look at the author’s use of sources. Asking some possible questions along with it. For example ; ‘What do quotes do?’, ‘How does the author use the quote?’, ‘What is the balance between the quotes and the author’s own voice?’

§  Outline to the students what are the ideal structures for quotes.

§  Break them into small groups and have them discuss from each other’s papers

§  Write out their essays.

Why?

§  As they do not mind peer conferencing, it will help them construct and improvise.

§  A more detailed topic was given because they are already good writers. And from that detailed topic, they will need to do a lot of revising as their writings will then be presented to audiences.

Suitable writing feedback

Phase one students – Indicidualised feedback

As they are not good in writing, they are a bit confused on how to approach the task. So, an individualised feedback is the best because they want a concrete suggestion type of feedback from the teachers, to tell them whether they are doing it correctly in a constructive manner. So, the suggestions are manageable and easier for them to digest, thus making the writing feels easier.

Phase Two students – Individualized feedback

These students most likely will accept suggestion given to them without any questions. And if they completely accept those suggestions, it could not progress them to be a good writer. Those suggestions could be posed as questions, such as,

‘What if ….?’

‘Why did you choose these?’

‘What did you choose these?’

‘What are you trying to state in the paragraph here ….. is that what you mean?’

By posing the suggestions as questions, it will make them think of other options that they can use.

Phase Three students – Individualized feedback

The problem here is for the teachers to give feedback without dismissing as contrary or intrusive to their way.

Feedback could be given through audience response. It is due to their desire to impress an audience.  For example ;

                  ‘Could you make the point clear to me, because I am not sure what

                  you mean?’

With this type of comments, these students most likely won’t dismiss it. The reason being is that these comments do not state negative comments about their writing.

Phase Four student – Individualized feedback and peer conferencing

Individualized feedback

It is important for comments or suggestions to be balanced. Adding in constructive suggestions, for their improvement. Reason is, it challenges them and help them grow as good writers.

Peer – conferencing

Constructive comments given by peers could help them realise what are other ideas that other people might have. Therefore by comparing their writing to their peers, they could stretch their writing in order to improve.

During the process of doing this assignment, I had read a few online journals and e-books that I found on the internet, regarding Lipstein & Renninger’s research. I am not an ESL teacher currently, but I can relate their findings to what I experienced during my school years. I still can recall on how I hate writing. But, from the activities that were used by my teachers to grab our attention and help us write, makes writing seems like we are not doing writing, compositions and sort at all. At the same time, we would actively participate in giving or voicing out our opinions and putting it into words. And at the end of the day, voila! We had written something.

If I were to ask from the point of view of an ESL teacher, I think that Lipstein & Renninger had helped all teachers by summarizing the phases of students and by what they prefer and don’t prefer. So, teachers could start building their lesson plans from there. According to types of phases that the students are categorized in.

It is important for all teachers to know the strength of their students. It will make activities be done much easier. 2 things could be accomplished, the student understands what they are learning because the teachers does not only teach but facilitates them on what they need. Teaches on the other hand achieved their teaching goals.

What I understand from their work also, is that to teach writing to student is age – related. Most important thing is interest. Because according to them, interest for writing affects the ways that students approach writing and the results they achieve. To have them be interested in writing is the first step to sculpt a good writer.

Student wants to be heard. So, by facilitating their needs according to the phases, it will deepen their interest for writing.

“It is worth noting that the needs of students in one phase becomes the wants of students in the next phase.”

(Lipstein & Renninger)

Therefore, by noting their needs, students will then develop more interest in writing, enjoying what was once hard for them.

Also, in their research, they had provide, the proper ‘what kind of feedbacks’ on student’s paper, according to their phases.

We cannot use only certain kind of feedback for all of the students. Certain phases might use or need more than 1 type of feedback in order for them to be a strong writers.

Advantages of peer – conferencing

Lipstein & Renninger spoke about peer – conferencing in their work. It is a successful ambition, students could learn a lot not just about what are their strength and weaknesses, but also how and what it takes to make a good story.

But not all phases likes peer – conferencing. Because to them, at that stage they don’t like to be criticise especially by someone whom they think who is not superior enough to be commenting their work.

But at certain phases, peer – conferencing are needed and could be useful because it helps  them see their work from other people points of view, not just one particular person.

There are many pros and cons of peer – conferencing, and every pros will have its cons.

The pros of peer conferencing are we get to view our own writing from other people’s perspective. From there we would know what did we do wrong, how do we correct it and so on. Peer conferencing is good because we get to share ideas with other people. No one can say the same thing as someone else; therefore, we get wide variety of opinions.

Furthermore, I do believe that the more students are actively engaged in something, the more and the better they learn. Through peer conferencing students takes an active role, because all these times, teachers and students worked in an isolated environment. A situation where students write and teacher’s grade. Therefore, students missed out on an opportunity to learn from each other, having conversations about their writing and read more. So, by having student participates in peer conferencing, they will take interest at other’s writing. Also a root for them, when they receive back their essays from their teacher’s.

Promoting peer conferencing will have the students understand that they are not being lectured to but they can teach each other. Students must know what is wrong before having to correct it. Therefore by viewing their peers work, the more they could learn and apply that knowledge to their own writing. They train their eyes to spot the mistakes, so that they won’t repeat that same mistakes.

Lastly, the pros of peer conferencing are less paperwork for teachers. When peers edited their work, teachers could concentrate more on the students.

Disadvantages of peer conferencing

Peer conferencing has no grading system on the qualities of peer review. Different journals have different sets of standards. We would not know the reviewer’s quality and expertise.

There might be chances that a good writing could get rejected, whilst a poor writing could easily pass. Because, maybe writing are judged whether the other peer likes them or not, rather than the results of the writing.

Students don’t really know how to evaluate writings. Perhaps more on minor, mundane mistakes, for example; grammar and punctuation mistakes rather than the content.

Having students to judge their peer’s work could be uneasy. Resulting to them not giving honest comments.

Can Lipstein & Renninger research be generalized.

After reading through their work, I would suggest their theories can and should be generalized. Because, we would just focus on the needs that they had stated, and enhance student’s interest in writing rather than making them feel like it’s a burden. Therefore, understanding of the student’s characteristic according to their phases could really help teachers.

By learning writing, students enhance their skills in grammar, spellings and learning new words, in their way as how they want it to be. Provided that lesson plans be carried out effectively, the results would be amazing.

Conclusion

I concluded that, and we all know that to educate people is a tedious process. Everyone has their own sets of mind and their own way of thinking. But in an overall manner, in writing, each phase of students has their own ways on how they need their lessons be taught to them. it is important for teachers to listen to their students need, to make them be successful and achieve the satisfaction of being a good educator.

REFERENCES

v  5 reasons student should be doing peer editing, viewed at http://secondarysolutionsblog.com/5-reasons-students-should-be-doing-more-peer-editing/ accessed on 12^th Nov 2013.

v  Renninger, K. Ann, (2009)'Interest and Identity Development in Instruction: An Inductive Model', Educational Psychologist, 44:2, 105 — 118

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